The Keeper’s Role in Zoo Animal
Health
Judie Steenberg (1977/2007)
Note: The
article is copyrighted by AAZK, Inc. If it is reprinted, it much include the
acknowledgement wording as follows: “©2007 AAZK, Inc. Reprinted with permission
of the American Association of Zoo Keepers, Inc. (AAZK), 3601 SW 29th
St., Ste. 133, Topeka, Kansas 66614-2054 USA; www.aazk.org<
INTRODUCTION
This paper was originally written
in August 1977 while I was a student at the University of Minnesota studying
for a Bachelor of Science degree in Zoo Operations and Animal Management.
Although 30 years have passed since it was written, and later published in Animal Keepers’ Forum (1979-80), the
content remains relevant to the care and management of animals in zoos, today
(2007).
There were three objectives I’d
hoped to accomplish when I wrote this paper:
1.
To record what I had learned
through observations and experiences as a student, a volunteer and a keeper,
from zoo personnel and veterinarians associated with zoos, through reading,
from courses in medical terminology, animal hygiene and animal science.
2.
To identify the areas in which
zookeepers can make a difference in the health and safety of the animals in
their keep.
3.
To emphasize the importance of cooperation and communication in achieving maximum effectiveness
of veterinary care for zoo animals.
The selection of topics for this paper, and the opinions expressed
herein, have been arrived at for the most part from personal experience. Where
quotations are used, I am in agreement with them.
Topics which I have elaborated
upon are those which I have experienced most fully. Topics which are mentioned
with only minimal additional information are those which I am aware of but had
little or no experience with. Therefore, this paper represents what I have learned,
and am knowledgeable about, regarding the Keeper’s Role in Zoo Animal Health.
Examples that are given throughout this chapter are based on actual events in a
zoological facility.
What follows is by no means a complete account of information on
the Keeper’s role in this part of a zoo’s operation, but is instead, a
beginning, a foundation upon which to build.
It is my hope that keepers
entering the profession will find it helpful in learning the best way to be the
advocates they should be for the animals in their care. Keepers are at the
beginning of interpreting the needs of the animals. You are their voice.
*************************************************************
More than ever before in the
history of zoos, wild animals in captivity should be receiving optimum care and
treatment for their general good health and well-being. This is not to say that
zoo animal medicine has reached its peak. On the contrary, it must be still be
considered to be a developing area of veterinary medicine. My statement
regarding optimum care is based on the many advances that have been and are
being made in zoo animal medicine, increased training and participation of zoo
personnel and an over- all cooperative attitude.
Today, many zoos employ
veterinarians on a full-time basis to tend to the medical needs of the animals
in their collections; other zoos have part-time veterinary service based on
daily or weekly visits and emergencies.
Some zoos must still rely on veterinary services on an on-call or emergency
call basis only, and a few zoos have Directors who are also Doctors of
Veterinary Medicine.
Other medical personnel found in
zoos are veterinary technicians or assistants, lab-technicians and
pathologists. Many zoos rely on local laboratories to run tests on blood, urine
or tissue samples. Zoos that have Animal Health Departments often have
veterinary students training at their facility.
This chapter deals specifically
with the role of the animal keeper in zoo animal health. In actuality, the
keeper is at the end of the line in a zoo’s chain of command regarding animal
health, coming after the director, assistant director(s), curators, zoologists,
collection managers, head or supervisory keepers and perhaps even after other
keepers with more seniority. However, the keeper responsible for the daily care
of zoo animals, and especially the keeper of a sick or injured animal, is in a
unique and important position. Yet, it is a tenuous position dependent upon
several things on the part of the keeper, the administration and the
veterinarian; namely attitude, personalities and policies.
-
The role a keeper can play as an integral part of a team effort in a zoo’s animal
health program should be recognized.
-
The keeper must be aware of his or her relative position in a
zoo’s animal health program in terms of
accurate observations and communications,
following directions on care and treatment, and maintaining a cooperative
attitude.
Before a keeper can be a
participant in the animal health program there must be some training or
background to draw from. Zoo keeper training programs may or may not provide
this basis. As a minimum instruction a keeper should be made aware of what
procedures to follow when an animal is sick or injured. Some zoos have keeper
training programs which include preparing a keeper to participate more fully in
animal health. Regardless of a zoo’s training program, individual effort and
self-preparedness, on the part of the keeper, will probably be the key factor
as to whether the keeper is a help or hindrance to the animal, to other zoo
personnel and the veterinarian in a time of need.
KEEPER,
KNOW THYSELF
One of the definitions of
“attitude” is …a manner of acting, feeling or thinking that show one’s
disposition, opinion, etc. An attitude can be reflected as a spontaneous
reaction to an emotion or experience, or it can be developed as a vital part of
an individual’s personality. Keepers’ attitudes regarding the well-being of
animals in their keep may range from anthropomorphic to antagonistic, or on the
other hand can be rational and cooperative.
Animals often elicit an emotional response from keepers,
especially if something has happened to cause the animal discomfort. These
emotions may intensify if the keeper immediately responsible for the care
of a sick or injured animal feels
helpless to relieve the problem. The attitude reflected by the keeper of a sick
animal can have an effect on the speed and efficiency with which the animal
receives medical attention. The rational, cooperative keeper will evaluate the
situation, take whatever immediate action is necessary and, according to the
seriousness of the problem, and notify the proper people.
The keeper with an antagonistic or
know-it-all attitude who cannot, or will not, accept the role of others in
treating a sick or injured animal can hamper proper treatment and complicate
the condition. This attitude can also cause the breakdown of communication and
cooperative efforts and in the end result in feelings of resentment toward the
keeper. The keeper who tends to be anthropomorphic or anthropopathetic, and
doesn’t deal with the problem, may not be capable of being objective and
realistic regarding the care and treatment of sick animals. These attitudes are
difficult for other people to work with and should be avoided.
Although it may seem, to some
keepers, that going through the chain of command to notify the veterinarian
that an animal needs attention is an unnecessary waste of time, it serves two
important purposes. It can put the keeper in contact with several members of
the zoo staff. This would be the case in zoos where the policy is that the
keeper contacts the senior keeper, then members of the administrative staff and
the veterinarian, instead of passing the responsibility to another person and
then sitting back and waiting. There are pros and cons to this method and the
individual keeper must be considered. This would not work with all keepers but
would be the most effective in establishing good working relationships with the
rational, cooperative keeper and his/her administrators and veterinarians.
The second important advantage of
going through a chain of command is that everyone concerned has been notified
of the problem and, therefore, may be able to help. At least they have been
apprised of the situation. Whatever the zoo’s policy is, the keeper should work
within the system rather than against it. If there are serious problems in the
chain of command and in communicating information, they should be dealt with
and the problems resolved.
The attitude expressed by a keeper
and the relationships that are developed are what the keeper’s reputation is
based upon. A keeper should take care to establish a good reputation with
immediate co- workers, supervisory personnel, the director and veterinarian.
The reliable, capable, cooperative and knowledgeable keeper who can communicate
is an important part of zoo animal health.
Also of importance is that the
keeper understands and works within his or her degree of authority. This
applies to the apprentice or novice level up through senior or supervisory
levels, and keepers should act accordingly. It should also be remembered that with increased authority comes increased
responsibility to act.
When keeper professionalism is
discussed, many qualities are listed. The keeper “…is the first to begin to
interpret some communication from the animal.” (Nall 1972-73). How well the
keeper responds to that condition has
a great deal to do with professionalism. In 1975 Stoskopf stated: “Zoological medicine is in its infancy and
we as keepers and veterinarians are working toward the same goal. We can benefit ourselves and our animals only by
working together and sharing our discoveries”. Much has been learned since the
1970s, and we are still learning. What hasn’t changed, and never will, is the
need for keepers and veterinarians, to work together for the benefit of the
animals in their care.
On the other hand, the keeper who hoards information as
“professional secrets” can hinder the progress of an animal’s recovery. Such a
person doesn’t belong in a zoo.
Another potential attitudinal
problem is over-dedication; coming to work no matter how debilitated, no matter
how sick the keeper feels. Zoonoses, defined as “…a disease communicable from
animals to humans under normal conditions.” (Merriam-Webster 2003) works the
other way, too. A sick keeper can
transmit disease to animals as well, especially to primates. In “Zoonoses and
the Animal Keeper” (Bielitzki 1977), keepers are reminded to consider the
possibility that they may also carry bacteria and viruses from home to work,
from persons with whom the keeper lives, from pets kept at home and from farm
animals the keeper may be in contact with.
Another point regarding a keeper’s
attitude is that all animals should be equally well cared for; the small, sometimes referred to, or
considered to be, insignificant animals
deserve the same consideration regarding their care and welfare as do the more
exciting, expensive or mega-vertebrate animals.
Communication
For a keeper to be effective in
his or her role in zoo animal health, communication skills must be developed to
share information with others and also to seek out the knowledge and advice of
others. There is an art to asking and answering questions. The way a question
is phrased and presented drastically affects the type of response. Conversely,
the way a person answers a question generally reflects a person’s attitude,
training and personality. Questions should be a means to learn more about a
situation or to share information with others, not to challenge someone’s
position. Well-intended, well- phrased questions will usually bring about the
information being sought. Demanding answers to questions may result in no
answer at all and have a closed door effect.
Note taking and record keeping are
important to all concerned. “Proper recording of information is important to
document techniques, routines and data for the benefit of all employees and for
analysis.” (Peel 1975). Important data should not be trusted to memory. The
experienced as well as the novice keeper would do well to carry a small
notebook and pen or pencil to record observations and data as soon as they
become apparent. The next best practice is to record notes at the first
opportunity. It is conceivable that the new keeper would spend time taking
notes throughout the day, until procedures, the facilities and especially the
animals become familiar. Veteran keepers may only take notes occasionally, but
must take care not to take too much for granted and thereby deny others the
benefit of his/her experience.
Records in zoos vary a great deal
as does the keeper’s participation in record keeping and data retrieval.
Fortunate is the keeper who is allowed to participate in the record keeping
system. Data retrieval from a zoo’s records is as important to a keeper’s
training as is the case history to the veterinarian. However, regardless of the
keeper’s position in relation to the zoo’s record keeping policies, there is
value in keeping a “Keeper’s Notebook”. It can serve as a means of review and
for sharing experiences and information
with co-workers. Today’s keepers have
the benefit of computers to record and store data for record keeping. Again, the access a
keeper has to a zoo’s animal records will vary from zoo to zoo.
When seeking information on the
care and management of zoo animals on the internet there is one word that comes
to mind…..CAUTION. Just because something is on the internet DOES NOT MAKE IT
VALID. Know the source and reliability of any data you are using. Unfortunately,
there is incorrect data on the internet
which cannot, and will not, be corrected.
The sharing of information is especially important between the
keepers in an area, such as the regular and relief keepers. The responsibility of informing
the other keeper lies with the keeper directly
involved with a new situation.
This does not, however, exclude the less-informed keeper from asking questions
about an animal’s condition, or a prescribed treatment, if not properly
informed. “I wasn’t asked” or “I wasn’t told” are no excuses for not briefing
each other when problems with an animal’s health and welfare are apparent, and
such attitudes should be reprimanded. A keeper returning to work from days off
should seek information to be brought up to date on the condition of all the
animals in the area he/she is responsible for.
Personality Traits
“Keeper Know thyself” should include a self-evaluation of one’s
personality traits, both the strong and weak characteristics.
Awareness is knowing what’s taking
place; observing and interpreting what one sees, hears or feels, knowing what
conditions are present. Some people seem to be naturally observant but actually
“…we see only what we know” (Goethe). It is possible for a keeper to develop
powers of observation by watching things with an active, inquiring mind; by
learning as much as possible about the animals being kept.
Ego must never interfere with the
welfare of a keeper’s animals. Self-confidence is important but over-
confidence can be dangerous to the keeper, the animals and anyone else involved
in a situation. A zoo is not the place to bolster one’s ego. Super egos not
only lose sight of what the process of animal health is about but can
interfere with the beneficial actions and attitudes of other keepers.
Wearing decorative scarves or jewelry, pendants, necklaces, bracelets, etc. to
enhance the appearance of the keeper is inadvisable. Such items can be
attractive to some animals and if given an opportunity grabbed by the animal
and ingested. The concern here is not for the personal loss to the keeper but
for what effect an ingested item will have on the animal. An informed,
conscientious keeper is aware of this possibility and takes care to keep
easily-grabbed pens or pencils, packs of cigarettes, glasses, keys or any other
loose item well out of the reach of primates, elephants, raccoons or any other
animal that has the physical ability and inclination to take such items.
Adverse reactions to fragrances
worn by keepers is not limited to female keepers wearing perfumes or scented
body lotions; a musk after-shave worn by a male keeper can have a strong
negative effect on animals also. Keepers should minimize wearing strong
fragrances on-the-job; save it for after hours.
At some time during a keeper’s career it
will probably be necessary to handle a situation where a member of the public
is teasing or actually injuring animals. It is a time when self-control may be
difficult and the keeper would prefer to take the offenders to task rather than
deal with them rationally. The immediate objective is to make the harassment
stop! Whether a keeper can handle the situation alone or needs help from other
keepers or security personnel depends on the situation. The keeper should be prepared, mentally, to size
up the situation and deal with it in the best way possible. When dealing with
the public the keeper is always serving in the role of public relations agent
and even at a time like this an effort should be made to remember that role.
Generally, wrong-doers cease their
actions when they realize they’ve been caught and often will leave the
area on the run. But, if not, a keeper should keep cool-headed and act promptly.
Another emotion-charged situation
is the emergency. It is also a time when cool-headedness and composure can help
relieve the problem while panic and hysteria only add to it. It’s not unusual
for the novice keeper to become somewhat excited in an emergency situation, but
as long as the excitement is
under control and the keeper can
function properly, he/she can still be of help. A keeper’s calmness during a
time of excitement can have a quieting effect on the animals, too. If a keeper
realizes he/she has a problem
controlling emotions or has an aversion to pain, blood or death, it is best for
all concerned for the keeper to come to grips with the problem. If that’s not
possible, if the emotional reaction is too strong to cope with, then it must be
realized that this particular keeper cannot be depended on in an emergency.
A personality trait that could
have a serious, negative effect on the health of a zoo animal is a keeper’s
inability to admit mistakes. Everyone has and will make mistakes. If a mistake
is serious and causes an animal to be injured or become sick, it must be
admitted to facilitate treatment. An example of this would be over-graining of
an equine. The quantity and type of grain fed is important for the veterinarian
to determine the degree of seriousness of the situation and to know what to be
prepared for to treat the animal. Withholding such information could result in
the treatment not being effective and the animal becoming permanently lame.
Self-Preparedness
A keeper can do several things to
improve his/her value as a participant in the health of zoo animals. Again,
knowing the zoo’s procedures and policies can facilitate treatment of a sick or
injured animal. A keeper should not be asking “who do I call” or “what do I do”
but should be taking action instead. Knowing a routine and the animals well
comes from being observant, asking questions and taking notes. It also requires
some effort on the keeper’s part to research the natural behavior of the
animals being cared for. “For the keeper to begin to determine the abnormal,
he/she must fully understand and know the normal.” (Nall 1972-73). A keeper may
or may not have time to do this research during working hours, but in either
case it is important that it be done. Another invaluable source of information
is the zoo’s records. Although it can be time-consuming, reviewing the history
of each animal being cared for will reveal important, useful data.
Until working in a zoo, a keeper
may not have heard words such as amplexus, cloacal, monotreme or olfaction,
much less agonistic behavior, colostrum, ecdysis or even fecal. Becoming
familiar with the definition of words such as these, and many others, will aid
in communications. Here again, it’s up to the individual to make the effort to
learn zoo terminology. A good way to start is to simply ask for the meaning of
unfamiliar works. Note- taking helps and a dictionary is indispensable.
An understanding of basic medical
terminology can be an asset in communication between the veterinarian and
keeper. Many of the definitions of basic medical terms can be learned through
self- study. Local libraries, and some zoo libraries, have books on medical
terminology. A keeper might also consider taking a medical terminology course
at a local vocational-technical school. In any case, when a medical term is
used or instructions are given using medical terminology, if the meaning of a
word is not fully understood, the keeper must ask for an explanation.
Zoo books have become more common
in recent years and some care must be taken when purchasing some of these books. Information on the internet
must be from a reliable source
to be dependable…..know where your information is coming from; ask
questions if in doubt. If there was but one set of references that a keeper should
become familiar with it would be the International Zoo Yearbook.
Published on an annual basis, these
yearbooks are described as “…an indispensible publication
for everyone concerned with care, conservation, biology and behavior of wild
animals.” (IZY 1976). Each volume contains
a section on a specific
topic while other sections contain articles on
breeding, husbandry, hand-rearing,
buildings and exhibits, conservation, education, veterinary care and statistics
and surveys. There are many good references; some old standbys and others
published in recent years. Some of the
most helpful references are listed at the end of the paper. A must-read
author is Heini Hediger; his books are
timeless in the basic principles of zoo animal husbandry. I would encourage you
to read all three of his books: Wild Animals in Captivity (1964), The
Psychology and Behaviour of Animals in Zoos and Circuses (1968) and Man
and Animal in the Zoo (1969). You might be thinking these are “old” books
but trust me, if you are serious about being a successful zoo keeper, these
books will help you be the best you can be.
Reading
is a form of self-education that should never end.
In a keeper’s day it’s hard to
imagine that something hasn’t happened that’s worth making a note of for future
reference. A seemingly insignificant observation can later be the key to
further discovery. Note- taking is a habit that can be developed. The tendency
to keep notes, whether on a personal basis, for a daily report, or the zoo’s
records may diminish in time. A keeper should guard against this happening.
Beyond note-taking, a keeper should seriously consider writing of his/her
experiences and observations for sharing with others in the zoo field. And this
does not just apply to animal health issues. Ideas and knowledge should be
communicated, shared with others who can use the information to better care for
their animals
While preparing oneself to become a more knowledgeable keeper
through self-study, it would be well to remember that “chance favors only the
prepared mind.” (Beveridge 1957)
One piece of advice given to me by
a Senior Keeper was:
“If you don’t
learn something every day you’re not paying attention.” Over the years I found
this to be right on….in all aspects of zoo animal keeping.
KEEPER,
KNOW THY ANIMALS
It’s
hard to imagine that one could ever learn all there is to know about zoo
animals.
A basic knowledge of the anatomy
and physiology of the animals a keeper is caring for is necessary to
understanding guidelines for meeting the animals’ basic needs. It is also
important to know what to avoid. The quality of the captive environment is
dependent on several things; useable space, proper temperature and humidity,
and avoiding hazardous designs. The animals’ nutritional requirements, social
needs, sensory apparatus and reproductive process should all be given
consideration and provided for.
Knowing what’s normal for a
species and what special needs they may have will help a keeper tend to the
animals properly. It will help the keeper to be more aware of the need to
stimulate an animals’ sensory apparatus and see that the body functions are
operating normally.
The Individuality of Animals
“The keeper must know what normal
is for every one of his charges…everyday behavior, eating habits, gait, odors,
discharges, fecal and urination characteristics.” (Porter 1975)
Learning the individual habits and needs of the animals takes time
and careful observation. Nall (1972-
73) points out that many times it takes much close observation for
even the most experienced keeper to interpret a communication from an animal.
Communication between people is
again a key factor. The senior keeper should share all of the knowledge he or
she has about individual characteristics or habits of the animal with the new
keeper. Once a new keeper is aware of certain habits, peculiarities or
abilities of an animal, an effort should be made to become familiar with them
and to remember them.
Animals as a group and as
individuals are quite expressive. Hediger (1968) lists four main areas of
animal expression: acoustic, optic, olfactory and internal. Some animals make
sounds (vocal, nasal or dermal) such as clacking beaks, grinding teeth or shaking
rattles to express their psychological state and/or
intentions. Still other animals produce
sounds with the help of objects; beavers use water surfaces to make sounds,
rabbits thump the ground, primates can make a variety of sounds in a cage by
banging or shaking it. These expressions along with the various calls of
animals can be to express territorialism, alarm, fear, aggression,
anticipation, courtship, recognition and well-being. The keeper should learn
the meaning of all of these expressions.
Optical expressions can be facial
expression, gestures, color changes or changes in stance or contour. In facial
expressions the ears, jaws, teeth, lip position, dilation of pupils, the
tongue, the position of the nose (elephant, tapir, seal) and yawning such as is
used by primates and hippos, all mean something. A keeper should also be aware
of tension of the neck, limbs or entire body, the bristling of the mane or rump
patch, or a ruffling of feathers and/or raising the crest. These are all
expressions.
The olfactory expression that
immediately comes to mind is that of the skunk. There are other animals capable
of emitting strong scents too, as an expression of alarm, to mark territory or
as a defense mechanism.
According to Hediger (1968),
internal expression phenomena are principally reaction of the digestive tract
such as regurgitation or diarrhea. He cites such examples as: snakes and
lizards may regurgitate after eating if handled improperly, various birds
regurgitate when excited, elephants and camels are noted for emptying their
bladders or discharging watery diarrhea, some amphibians and tortoises express
fluid as a defense, tree kangaroos can suddenly emit a clear watery nasal
discharge as a sign of stress (and turn it off as quickly as it started), an animal’s
appetite may diminish or it may refuse to eat altogether as an expression of
stress. Loose stools are a common digestive expression. “Consistency, color,
smell etc. must be examined regularly so that possible digestive troubles may
be treated at once.” (Hediger 1964).
One more form of expression, not
covered in the four main areas, is “shamming”. An animal may exhibit a limp or not use a limb while
being observed and yet move about normally when no one is watching. If this
sort of behavior is suspected, the animal should be observed from a hidden
observation point to determine if the hunch is correct.
A keeper must know what reaction
animals have to various stimuli (noise, unfamiliar people, changes in routine,
temperature, pasture or pens, etc.). The psychological state is closely allied
with the physical state; the mind controls the body to the extreme of
convulsions, hysteria, regurgitation, and flight reactions when an animal is
severely stressed. Psychological stress often manifests itself physically, and
no two animals will necessarily react alike. There is also variation in the
reactions of young animals versus old animals. Experience applies to animals,
too. Stress plays an important part in the overall welfare of animals and can
have a pronounced effect on reproduction. It’s up to the keeper to know the
signs of stress, to avoid causing it, and when it occurs, eliminate the cause.
Hediger (1968) lists six areas to
be aware of regarding an animal’s behavior: 1. acquisition and assimilation of
food, 2. maintenance of living quarters, 3. social activity, 4. reproduction
and care of young, 5. care of the body and comfort behavior and 6. play. A
keeper should be able to identify these behaviors according to the individual
animal, not just the species. As a group, a species of animals will generally
act or react in a certain way, but frequently there are individual behavioral
variations.
It is important for a keeper to be
able to identify the animals from their appearance, also. A veteran keeper when
asked “How can you tell them apart?” regarding a group of animals with few or
no obvious difference in color, size or markings, may well answer…”they don’t
look alike”…and not be facetious. It is frustrating to be told that, however,
when to the untrained observer, they DO look alike. It takes time and effort to
learn to tell similar-looking animals apart, but it can be done. Obvious
identification marks make it possible for anyone to tell the animals apart and
ear-notching, tagging or banding can be useful for that purpose. Animals are
also sometimes tattooed, for the purpose of identification, but usually in an inconspicuous place. If an
ear tag or band is lost, it should be reported and replaced promptly. If it
isn’t replaced, the hole or tear in the ear can serve as an identification
mark. Animals with obvious facial, body
or tail patterns or colorations should be photographed and the photo attached
to the animal’s records to facilitate identification. This is especially useful
when training new keepers to ID animals.
All animals should be assigned an
identification number and will often have a house name. Keepers should know the
ID numbers and names for each animal in their care and use them when reporting
data on a particular animal. At the risk of being repetitious…..if a keeper
doesn’t know how to identify an animal he/she should ask for advice, or
help.
Most zoo animals should have a
transponder implanted for permanent identification. A small capsule, with an
individual identification number, is slipped under the skin of the animal and
can then be read with a scanner.
Nutritional requirements and
feeding habits of zoo animals vary. Quantity, frequency of feeding, location of
food pans or hay bunkers, etc., temperature, consistency, container size, the
animal’s age, health, social status and the climate are some of the factors
affecting good animal nutrition. How much each animal is actually consuming
when it is in a competitive situation (dam/offspring, herd, sibling rivalry),
or how much food is carried off by transient birds or rodents must be
considered.
The social status of an animal may
be solitary, paired, small family group or a herd. A keeper should be
knowledgeable of what the normal social structure is for his/her animals, and
what ramifications there may be from a drastic change from the norm. Animals in
a group situation exhibit various levels of dominance which can vary during
breeding season or as younger animals assert themselves. A keeper must be aware
of changing social situations, the problems of increased social stress, or the
lack of
stimulation a social animal can
suffer if kept by itself. Supervisory personnel should be kept informed of any changes in an animal’s behavior or
social status. Adjustments in diet, the exhibit or populations should be made
according to the seriousness of the problem.
In areas where there are weather
extremes according to the seasons, a keeper should be alert to the animal’s
comfort. All properly designed exhibits should provide shelter from the
elements; wind, rain, sun, etc... Proper drainage is also a must; exhibits,
pens or yards should not be constantly wet or damp. Substrate, such as
concrete, can be detrimental to an animal’s well-being. Branches, shelves,
platforms, nest boxes, soil, or bedding can help break up the hard surface of
concrete and remedy the problem.
A keeper should know what temperatures
various animals require for basic comfort and what indications they give to
express discomfort. Humidity and ventilation are also factors in an animal’s
environment. Adjustments in temperature, humidity and ventilation should be
made according to the seasons or an animal’s needs, such as for the newly born
or hatched. A keeper should know how to operate any temperature or humidity
control equipment in any of his/her areas.
In some species, breeding behavior
can be rough and possibly upsetting to the inexperienced keeper. Biting,
kicking, squealing and knocking the females to the ground are not unusual for
some species. Breeding posture and the duration of copulation also vary
according to species. It behooves a new keeper
to learn about the age of sexual maturity, frequency of breeding (seasonal,
etc.) and the behaviors to expect from the
animals he or she is responsible for. A keeper should also be able to
tell if
intromission was achieved.
Breeding attempts and successes
should be carefully recorded and the probable date of birth or hatching
determined. This date should be noted on a calendar readily viewed by anyone in
the unit. During the months prior to parturition, preparations should be made. Plans need to be made to separate
the pregnant female from the
male or herd, if necessary. Nest boxes may need to be built and placed in the
unit early enough for the parturient female to become familiar with or the
animal may need to be given relief from visual contact with zoo visitors. In
some cases it may be necessary to remove the animal from the exhibit, or block
the exhibit from the public, until after the young have been born, are being
cared for by the mother and she is ready to accept other stimuli.
Awareness of an animal’s needs and
making preparations for a pending birth can make the difference between an
animal successfully raising her young, rejecting it so it needs to be
hand-raised or even destroying the young as has been the case with some
jaguars, sun and polar bears, and tree kangaroos, in zoos. A careful check of
the facilities should be made prior to the arrival of young to detect any
places the young could “walk out”, or get “hung-up”.
Birds can be most challenging! Breeding
seasons in captive situations can be affected
by the temperature, rain, artificial light sources, or the normal
breeding season of a bird from another hemisphere, etc... Keepers must
learn the normal breeding patterns, nesting requirements, incubation periods
and food requirements for each bird species in their care. Altricial species
might require that you be prepared to
spend considerable time hand-raising the chicks. Precocial species might
require removing the chicks for various reasons. Preparations should be made
well in advance to be ready for whatever is required for the survival of the chicks.
With the birth or hatching of young, a keeper has a new set of
responsibilities and must be aware of the normal process of development of the
young animal(s), according to the species. How soon after birth
the young animal attains a
standing position, when it first suckles or picks up food, the duration of its
feeding attempts, the first time it defecates or urinates, the color and
consistency of the feces, the amount of urine or feces passed are all important
to record for future reference. These things give an indication of the overall
strength and condition of the young animal. Also worth noting are the dam’s
reaction to her offspring, to the presence of people and the time lapsed until
delivery of the afterbirth.
As the young animal grows and
begins eating solid foods, how much it eats and what solids were eaten should
be recorded; depending on the species and logistics, weights should be recorded
as often as possible to monitor growth. Other data of interest are: when the
eyes first opened, reactions to visual stimuli, changes in pelage/feathers,
physical size and appearance, changes in dentition, vocalizations, when the
young animal first left the nest, followed its dam, swam or moved about
independently of its dam, etc.
It is very important that plans be
made and supplies acquired prior to a birth if hand-raising is thought to be a
possibility. Research should be done on the proper formula, teat size and
shape, feeding schedule and species specific needs well in advance of the
birth.
If it is necessary to remove a
young animal for hand-raising, the date of birth, date removed, weights and
measurements should be recorded. Records should also reflect the quantity and
kind of food offered, consumption, the number and frequency of feedings offered
during a 24-hour period and the method used to feed.
Whether mother-raised or hand-raised, the date and details
regarding diet changes and prophylaxis or treatments should be recorded.
To summarize, the keeper’s knowledge
and recognition of an animal’s individuality, a mark of success, is the
relationship that is established between the keeper and the animals. Good
relationships are conducive to animal health. Poor relationships can mean
repeated stress which could result in health problems. A keeper need not be
“friends” with each animal but must be aware of the animal’s psychological as
well as physical needs and reactions, and try to work with them, not against
them. “From the very start a person is either sympathetic or antipathetic to
the animal. This fact is of the greatest importance in keeping animals.”
(Hediger 1964).
Facilities and Equipment
The conscientious keeper is aware
of the condition of the facilities in the area and either makes necessary
repairs promptly or reports the need for them to the proper people. A daily
check should be made to spot needed repairs or locate potentially hazardous
conditions. A keeper who is on good terms with maintenance personnel has a
better chance of getting work done than one who is at odds with them. Proper
communications can make the difference in getting the work done promptly or
having to wait for it to be done When a problem arises, it must be determined
what effect it will have on the animals in the area (i.e. a broken fence), and
safety precautions must be taken. It may mean keeping the animals off exhibit
or moving them to another area.
Weakened barriers are an
invitation to trouble and should be given routine maintenance to keep them
strong. Even with a seemingly sufficient barrier, though, “…the rule applies
that the effectiveness of a barrier is inversely proportionate to the strength
of the animal’s degree of excitement. “ (Hediger 1964).
An area should never have loose
fencing wire, nails, bailing twine or wire, tools, loose boards or protruding
nails in it. All items (tools, wire etc.) taken into an area for making repairs
must be removed before allowing the animals access to the area. Protruding wire
and nails must be bent back to prevent possible injuries. For years after
construction has taken place in an area, nails, bolts, etc. can work their way
to the surface. Regular checks should be made and in large areas a magnet sulky
should be dragged across the ground.
“Hardware disease” is caused when
a foreign object, usually metal, punctures the reticulum of a ruminant. The
problem is not rare since ruminants are generally indiscriminate eaters. A
keeper should be keeping an eye out for foreign objects thrown into exhibits,
moats, etc., such as paper cups, plastic bags, coins, or any object that might
be consumed by an animal.
All units should be as predator proof as possible and an effort
made to trap nocturnal predators such as owls, fox, skunk, raccoon, opossum,
etc.
When there is a pending birth, the exhibit must be looked at with
an eye toward what dangers there might be for a young animal, depending on the
species. Two examples are:
1.
a young giraffe became “hung up”
on the front bars of the exhibit. Adequate precautions were not taken and it
died when the incident occurred a second time.
2.
a young tree kangaroo was observed to have climbed up a door frame
to a screened area approx. 15-18 feet above a concrete floor. There was a _”
edge on the door frame, thought to be too narrow for the animal to get a
purchase on and to be able to climb. It made
it down safely and the door
frame was immediately modified to prevent recurrence.
There seems to be a rule that if something hazardous occurs and
nothing is done to change it, it will occur again, probably with disastrous
results.
Locks in all areas should be in
good working condition and replaced when they become defective. The location
and condition of capture and restraint equipment, and the proper way to use the
equipment, should be known. If the new keeper isn’t knowledgeable on how to use
capture equipment he/she should ask for training, if it is not offered.
Although smoking is not allowed in
many zoos, “No Smoking” signs should be posted in all areas in which there are
potential fire hazards, and care must be taken when using vehicles around hay
storage areas. It has actually happened that a hay barn was started on fire by
the hot exhaust pipe on a truck left running in the barn.
Keepers working in an area that
has the potential of burning, especially old buildings, should have a plan of
what to do if a fire breaks out. Knowing where fire extinguishers are and being
sure they’ve been checked and are functioning properly, knowing which kind of
fire the extinguisher is meant to put out, and knowing the location of the
nearest telephone can help reduce fire loss. All telephone locations should
have local fire and police numbers posted near them. Fire procedures and what
to do in the event of a natural disaster such as a tornado, severe storm or
flood should be emphasized as a part of a keeper’s orientation and training.
Food and water containers should
be of the proper size and of unbreakable materials. To prevent an animal
carrying off containers, or having them lodged on a part of the body, they
should be weighted down or securely fastened to a fence or building. Dumping,
or playing in water tubs seems to be a favorite pastime for some animals.
The Routine
Following a basic routine is for
the benefit of both the keepers and the animals. A routine can help to identify
problems, allow for prompt treatment and insure that all animals have received
proper care. A routine can be reassuring to the animals and serve as a means
for the keeper to check that everything is in order.
The first duty a keeper has in a
day’s work is to check all of the animals in his/her area. There will be some
variation in this practice according to a zoo’s policies and physical lay-out,
but at least within the first hour all animals should be accounted for and
known to be alive and well, or otherwise. It is also important to note the
condition of the facilities at this time, the amount of food and water consumed
since last check, and the condition of the feces. If medication had been put
into the feed, the amount eaten should be noted. If there is a medical or
maintenance problem that needs immediate attention, the proper supervisory
personnel should be promptly notified.
Talking to the animals lets them know you’re approaching A
keeper’s voice identifies who
is approaching and can be
soothing to otherwise excited animals. It doesn’t matter what’s being said; the
tone and calmness of the voice does. In some areas a radio can be helpful to
give the animals exposure to voices and
other sounds.
Before entering a cage/enclosure
to pull food or water pans, or to clean it, it is usually beneficial to the
animal to allow it to transfer to another cage or outdoor enclosure. This
applies even to animals that pose no threat
to the keeper, and is especially important with highly excitable animals.
Clean is important, but not at
the animal’s expense. A keeper should know and respect the animal’s territory
and the critical flight distance for each animal being cared for.
In addition to talking to animals,
it is important to know when to make eye contact with them. Some examples are:
primates feel threatened or challenged when stared at, some timid species of
birds and mammals can be worked with and moved quite easily if the person’s
back is kept toward them, large raptors that have a tendency to be aggressive
(defensive if nesting) can usually be kept at a safe distance by simply looking
at them all the while the keeper is working near them. Another technique that
benefits the animals is to move slowly and deliberately around animals and to
exhibit an air of authority. Knowing how to work around various animals
according to the species, and the individual, is a must.
Cage cleaning should be done
thoroughly and efficiently. Having the proper tools (in good working
condition), disinfectants and cleaning agents in a convenient but safe place,
out of reach of the animals, helps the process go more smoothly. Care must be
exercised when using cleaning agents or disinfectants that they are used
according to the instructions. While cleaning a unit, care should be taken not
to cross-contaminate other units by flushing feces or debris into them. After a
unit and food and water containers have been properly cleaned, all equipment
and cleaning materials have been removed from the unit, drain covers replaced
and the unit securely locked, the animals can then be allowed to return to it.
Many animals anticipate feeding
time; some actually become highly excited. Part of a keeper’s daily routine
should be to feed animals on schedule. This includes both the number of times
during the day an animal is to be fed and the hour of the day food is to be
offered. The subject of nutrition is covered
more thoroughly on the following pages. The point here is that when an
animal is fed is also important, especially for animals with high metabolic
rates that require food more frequently.
Policing the area is another
“routine” practice. It is especially important on very crowded days, to
discourage visitors from teasing or harming the animals, to remove harmful
items thrown into exhibits and to explain “no feeding” policies where relevant.
While making a routine check of the area a keeper can learn some of the daily
habits of the animals, such as nap-taking.
In addition to the morning check of the animals, a keeper should
routinely check all animals and units just before leaving for the day, to be
sure that:
-
all animals are alive and well.
-
all units were cleaned and are free of foreign objects.
-
all animals were fed and watered
properly and hoofed stock has sufficient forage to last until the next day.
-
all transfer doors and unit exit doors are properly closed and
locked.
-
temperature
control equipment is properly set or doors are
open/closed according to the weather
forecast.
-
night keepers and/or security are
informed of any special concerns they should be aware of regarding the keeper’s
unit.
As a final routine practice,
during the day, important data should be entered on the zoo’s report form,
computer record keeping program, keeper’s notebook and/or personal notebook. If
an animal is sick and needs to be checked, an animal is about to give birth or
any other condition exists that requires checking on during the night the night
keeper and/or security personnel should be given explicit instructions before
the day keeper leaves.
While a routine can add to an
animal’s sense of security, can help prevent minor problems from becoming major
and can be a self-checking practice, care must be taken that the routine is not
so set that a sudden change results in a panic reaction from an animal.
Extremes are seldom acceptable in any respect.
Nutritional Requirements
A properly fed animal helps identify other health problems. If the
animal is receiving proper nutrition, other possibilities must be investigated
when the animal is sick.
The nutritional requirements of
zoo animals vary according to species, age, size and environment. The quality
and assortment of food offered must provide sufficient nutrients. The amounts
of protein, fat, carbohydrates, fiber, vitamins, minerals and water needed,
vary from amphibians, to reptiles, to birds and to mammals. Whether an animal
is a carnivore, omnivore, frugivore, insectivore, browser, grazer, primate, ungulate,
shrew, elephant, etc. must also be considered. Proper nutrition, according to the
needs of the specific animal, provides energy for structural
development, maintenance (heat, repair and replacement of tissue), reproduction
and lactation.
Although the keeper is not
generally the person determining what diet will be fed to a particular animal,
he or she should know what the nutritional requirements are for the animal and
why a certain diet is being fed.
Assuming that proper diets have
been established, and quality food is available, it becomes the keeper’s duty
to see to it that the food quality is maintained in his/her area, that the
correct food items and quantities of food are offered according to the animal’s
diet, that the food is prepared *properly (shape, size of pieces, temperature,
texture and consistency), is offered to the animal in a proper container and
fed at the designated time. Frequency of feeding is also very important; some
animals require frequent feedings throughout the day. Every effort should be
made to simulate the specie’s normal feeding patterns.
*the area of food preparation will vary from zoo to zoo
The subject of zoo animal nutrition is not generally taught in a zoo or academic situation, but the interested
keeper can, through selected reading, acquire a basic knowledge of the subject
to better tend to the needs of the animals. This is not to suggest that the
keeper should become a nutritionist or adjust diets without approval; it means
the keeper needs to know enough about the animal’s nutritional needs, and the
zoo’s operations, to do a good job. A zoo should have a protocol for adjusting
diets as needed (i.e. seasonal, reproduction,
geriatric) and should include input
from the keeper, area supervisor, nutritionist and veterinarian.
Some zoos have a form that a keeper can initiate requesting a diet change. A
keeper should promptly inform and/or discuss any diet changes or modifications
that occur due to an animal’s appetite, age or condition. If it’s zoo policy, a
keeper may have to relay such information up through a chain of command.
Examples of animals’ changing nutritional requirements according
reproduction, social conditions, lactation, growth age and season are:
-
a herd male has increased energy needs during breeding season.
-
a pregnant female has a need for additional nutrients, especially during the last third of pregnancy.
-
a lactating female has an even greater need for adequate nutrients
in a diet.
- quantity, the consistency of food and the frequency of feeding change
as an animal grows.
This
can apply to the composition of both the milk and solids.
- crowding
or social dominance can cause nutritional problems in subordinate animals.
- a
highly stressed animal has increased nutritional needs.
- an
inactive animal may have a subnormal nutritional requirement.
-
problems of poor nutrition will show up faster in young animals.
-
animals require additional nutrients during cold weather to
maintain body heat and condition.
-
poorly fed animals may not reproduce or deficiencies’ may become
evident in their offspring.
Even when the nutritional
requirements are known, there can be variations in the needs of two animals of
the same species with the same basic nutritional needs. Some animals are
“easy keepers” or sometimes referred to as “thrifty”
and simply require fewer nutrients to remain in good condition. Conversely, there are also problem animals that in spite of being
fed a balanced diet in adequate amounts are “unthrifty”, and
always appear to be in subnormal condition.
An animal should have access to
fresh, clean water. Water is vital to the functions of the body and metabolism
of nutrients. It helps regulate body temperature, is important to the
absorption and transportation of nutrients, it serves as a medium for chemical
reaction in tissue cells and it helps carry off body wastes.
In addition to providing essential
nutrients, a balanced diet should ensure employment of the teeth and digestive
organs in such a way as to keep them healthy. Food also provides occupation and
contentment for captive animals. According to Hediger (1964) “The animal
doesn’t not simply eat; it takes its food
in a very definite way, usually at a definite time as well.” He also
makes mention of the search, recognition, grasping, chewing, swallowing, etc. of food, and
that some animals need to feed continuously while others only occasionally.
Another factor is psychological
stress. “The intake of sufficient food is not enough; the best conditions for
digestion should be present.” (Hediger 1964). In reference to an animal’s
flight tendency, Hediger states “Even the best food will not be taken by the
animal if it has a flight tendency and if the food presented is less than the
flight distance away from man.” …or other intimidating factors.
Keepers should also keep in mind
what the animal’s normal activity pattern is – diurnal, crepuscular or nocturnal.
If, for example, a nocturnal animal is given food early in the day, there could
be spoilage problems in the heat of summer, the food could be carried off by
birds or rodents, or the food might freeze solid in the winter.
A cause of digestive problems in
zoo animals can be poor quality food. “There is a mistaken notion, impossible
to eradicate, that tainted food no longer fit for human consumption can be
eaten by animals without harm. Mouldy bread, spoiled vegetable refuse, and
rotten food cause just as serious disturbances in health to animals as to man.”
(Hediger 1964). Food quality is maintained by properly storing and using foods
according to the shelf life of food items. All foods should be rotated at the
point of delivery and in each area, the oldest items being used first. Using
good judgment in discarding unpalatable or rotten portions of food should be
done with care taken not to waste good food.
Moisture and pests are both
problems to avoid in storing grains; proper containers are helpful but only if
they are used properly. A keeper can be instrumental in maintaining food
quality in his/her area by such practices. A good rule of thumb is to treat the
food and preparation of it as if it is to be consumed by oneself.
When feeding animals donated from
laboratories, etc., careful checking should be done for metal tags, clips or
dyes. The source of the donation and how the animals were used MUST be known;
take no chances. Care must also be exercised in using animals that die around
the zoo as food for carnivores. The question “what did it die from” must be
kept in mind, and the decision to use the animal as food made by the zoo
veterinarian. This practice has diminished in zoos over the decades but is
still practiced by some zoos.
All surfaces and containers used
for food and water should be kept clean. Hay should be fed in a bunker if
possible, not from the ground or floor of a stall; all hay should be shaken and
fluffed to locate any foreign objects. Brushes for cleaning food and water
containers should be labeled as to their intended use and not used for other
purposes such as scrubbing floors, walls, etc.. Water buckets should be labeled
“for clean water only” and used accordingly. If animals with health problems
are kept in the same area as healthy animals it is especially important that
their food and water containers are used for them exclusively and not
mistakenly used to feed or water other animals.
Public feeding of animals is a
problem in some zoos. In a survey of children’s zoos (Schneider 1975-
76) 67%
reported allowing the public feeding of the animals. It stated that this
coincided with a trend in zoos to abolish public feeding throughout the zoo. It
is felt that in a carefully monitored children’s zoo area, some control can be
exercised in which animals are fed, what kinds of food are offered and how much
food the animals are receiving. It must be kept in mind however, that zoo
visitors may not restrict themselves to feeding only children’s zoo animals and
may attempt to feed other animals in the zoo regardless
of signs, and policies, stating no feeding. It is hoped that over the past
three decades, public feeding has lessened
considerably. Most public feeding is now limited to over-feeding animals in
roadside zoos and farm animals in some public, or private zoos.
Other problems of public feeding
are that the type and quantity of food can be harmful to the animal, and it encourages begging behavior. An animal that’s obviously begging for food can cause
an uneducated or ill-intended
visitor to feed the animal unsuitable food or other ‘items”. Zoo animals are
not always discriminating in what they take into their systems resulting in
such problems as “hardware disease” as previously mentioned.
In the introduction to the results
of a survey on “Public Feeding of Zoo Animals”, Wilson (1976) stated that
whether public feeding was beneficial or detrimental to the public, the staff
and the animals, was a matter of individual interpretation. The survey also
gave pros and cons regarding the practice of public feeding. Of 54 zoos
responding to the survey, 31 stated they did allow public feeding. In answer to
the question “should public feeding be allowed?” 25 responded yes, indicating
some were allowing the practice of public feeding contrary to the attitudes of
the survey respondents. Although this practice has diminished, somewhat, over
the decades there is a new trend in the public feeding of zoo animals. For
example, scheduled feeding of giraffes, for a fee, and feeding budgies millet on
a stick (@ $1.00/stick) is now taking place.
Whatever the practice of the zoo,
the potential hazard to the animals’ health cannot be overlooked; whether it’s
from eating the wrong food, an imbalanced diet, and non-food items or from
becoming obese. It has been said that a well-fed animal is less susceptible to
trash foods, and perhaps so. But, much depends on the species of animal being
fed. Keepers should know of the ramifications of the public feeding of zoo animals, the policy of the zoo he/she is
working at, carefully monitor the animals’ health, and act accordingly when
problems occur.
The use of vitamin and mineral
supplements in the diets of zoo animals has been one of the important advances
in zoo animal husbandry. Over the years, some animals difficult or impossible
to keep have become common in zoos and are even reproducing. Most commercial
diets contain vitamins and minerals in proper ratios. When feeding a natural
diet, supplements can make up for poor quality feeds and hay deficient in one
or more vitamins and/or minerals. For example, keepers should be able to
recognize poor quality hay, know of the need to supplement phosphorous–rich red
meat and understand the need for thiamine supplement when feeding certain
species of dead fish. Not only is it necessary to
know when supplementation is
needed, but “how much” is required by a particular species must be known also.
An example of this is that marmosets require ten times more vitamin D than do
squirrel monkeys. It must also be realized that hypervitaminosis of vitamin D
can result in death. A keeper should
not only follow instructions on the usage of vitamin and mineral supplements
carefully, but also learn why they are needed and what problems can occur if
not used properly, in sufficient amounts. The keeper should also be sure that
the supplement reaches the animal(s) it is intended for. Hand-feeding can be a useful technique to accomplish this
with some animals. Supplemented food should be offered first, when the animal is
hungriest. When a group of animals
is being fed, such as hoofed-stock, supplements must be
thoroughly mixed into the feed, rather than just sprinkled on top, to prevent
one or two animals from eating all of it.
Trace mineral salt blocks should be available ad lib for some
species. The blocks should be kept out of the rain if possible, to prevent them
from eroding.
Feeding the right quantities of
food according to the needs of individual animals means being careful not too
over-feed as well as under-feed. Obese animals are not “healthy” animals;
obesity can impact reproduction. Careful observation (from a distance so as not
to disturb the animal) will help to determine an animal’s eating habits and to
identify any problems.
In the event diets need
modification (increase or decrease in quantity), it is important that the
actual amount being offered, and consumed is, known. With this in mind, keepers
should not feed according to “a handful,” “a pinch”, or by “eyeballing”
quantities, but should use weights and measures.
How to prepare food according to
individual needs and where to place it can vary; to some animals it doesn’t
make much difference; to others it may determine whether not they eat properly.
An example of food preparation is the animal that rejects pieces of orange with
rind left on but accepts them readily if the rind is removed.
A shy animal, even though very
hungry, may refuse food unless it can feel secure while eating. Food placed in
the hot sun or rain can soon become unacceptable to an animal. Another feeding
technique a keeper should be aware of is the number of containers of food
offered in reference to the number and social behavior of the animals in a
unit. Serious confrontations can occur during competition for food or an
especially subordinate animal can be kept away from the food altogether. The
right number of feeding containers, adequately spaced, might be a solution in
such problems, or it may be necessary to separate animals during feeding time.
In summary, while a keeper seldom
decides what diet an animal will be fed, he/she can make a difference in how
the food is stored in the area, how it is prepared, how the feeding is done,
how well an animal consumes its food and when and how a change in diet is made.
The keeper should be the first person aware of the need to change a diet
according to the season, a growing animal, etc. and promptly communicate this
information to the person(s) authorized to make diet changes. Changing diets
gradually is best to avoid upsetting the animal’s digestive system.
There are a dozen basic rules a
keeper can use as guidelines to animal nutrition.
1. Know
what and how much to feed. Under-fed animals are more susceptible to disease.
Over- fed animals may have health problems due to obesity, problems in reproduction, or to the extreme
such as founder in equines.
2. Know
the proper size food should be offered in. “Usually” the smaller the animal the
smaller the pieces of food should be. But, there is occupational value in
varying the sizes and shapes of food, too. What we used to call “occupation” is
now often referred to as “enrichment”.
3. Know
the difference between forages (grass hays/ legumes) and feeds.
4. Feed at scheduled times and according to the animal’s
feeding patterns. Frequency of feeding
must also be followed.
5. Do
not feed spoiled foods.
6. Do not feed moldy, or dusty, poor quality forage. Be on guard for
a few bad bales even in a good quality stack of hay.
7. Shake
forage out, checking for thistle, cactus or foreign objects, before feeding hay.
8. If
food is rejected, find out why! - too hot to eat, spoiled food, sick animal?
9. Make sure all animals in a group get their
fair share of food, water, vitamin/mineral supplements and, when
necessary, medication.
10. Keep
food and water containers clean.
11. Observe,
record, report and act accordingly regarding any changes in diet.
12. Ask
questions when in doubt.
Diseases
A keeper should be aware of the
many forms of disease that can affect zoo animals. It would also be helpful to
know that diseases are classified by their cause. They can be:
-
genetic (deformities, breeding problems).
-
caused by lower plants or animals (bacteria, viruses, parasites,
insects, mycoses).
-
intoxication (chemical, plant, animal, microbiological).
-
trauma (disturbance of tissues, broken bones, cuts, tears,
punctures, lameness).
-
secondary conditions ( disturbances of the circulatory system, innervations).
- static mechanical abnormality (gastrointestinal obstructions,
twisted intestines, inception, telescoping of the intestine).
-
metabolic or nutritional (milk fever, deficiencies and excesses).
-
neoplasms
-
undetermined causes
The degree of sickness can be
affected by the point of contact (rabies, head or facial bite more serious than
a bite in the extremities), the age of the animal (young and old more
susceptible), the species of the animal (equine encephalitis is not
transmittable to bovine), genetic individualism, general state of health (other
conditions present?), nutritional state, and climatic or seasonal conditions.
It is not necessary for a keeper
to understand all of the causes and degrees of disease, that’s the
veterinarian’s responsibility, However, knowing about the variations and
complexities of disease and the disease process will help the keeper better
understand the problems associated with zoo animal medicine.
It is also beneficial to be aware
of the various ways diseases are transmitted. How a disease organism is
liberated from a sick animal, how it enters the host (ingestion, injection or
respiration) and how it enters tissue, causing sickness and discomfort, vary.
Disease can be transmitted by contact with fecal matter, exposure to a diseased
animal (including people), by way of air-borne organisms, fomites (inanimate
carriers such as boots, buckets, and tools), vectors (living disease carriers
such as insects and bats), through bites and scratches received from infected
animals, and through venereal or vertical (dam to offspring) routes. Knowing
how disease can be transmitted is necessary for the keeper to realize how
he/she can take precautions against being a link in disease transmission.
“A zoo veterinarian can’t possibly
accomplish much without keeper cooperation. Most zoos are just too big for any
one person to know what is going on with each animal. The keepers are the eyes
and ears of the veterinarian, and when they suspect a problem with one of their
charges they must report it with as much detail as possible.” (Porter 1975).
The history of a sick animal is important to any diagnosis. Porter gives eleven
signs of disease and noteworthy characteristics to be used by keepers as
guidelines of what to look for and what a veterinarian may consider
significant. Porter also states “that any one
sign by itself may be normal for a specific animal, but all
should be noted either mentally or on paper.” In addition to the overall
appearance of the animal, head/tail carriage, etc. the following
characteristics should be looked for:
1. Change in behavior – a quiet animal becomes vicious, or an active
animal listless, depressed, collapsing, pain, convulsions or fits add, are
immediate causes of concern.
2. Change in defecation – diarrhea, foul odor, white specks or blood
present; increase or decrease in frequency or amount, foreign object present, straining.
3. Change in urination – increase or decrease in frequency or amount;
absence of urine; presence of blood or pus; straining to urinate.
4. Discharges – from eye, nose, vulva, penis, anus; amount, color,
consistency and odor are very important.
5.
Coughing sneezing, gagging – how often and how much.
6.
Limping or refusal to rise – which leg?
7. Change in appetite or water consumption – eating less or not at
all. No interest in food. Drinking more water.
8.
Lumps and bumps – size, location, rate of growth.
9.
Change in appearance – loss of hair, feathers, etc., dull coat,
losing or gaining weight suddenly.
10. Shortness
of breath, tires easily.
11. Regurgitation
or vomiting – does it occur in relation to eating; how much, what’s present?
“Who, what, when, where, how often and how much are as important
to the veterinarian as they are to the journalist.” (Porter 1975).
Early symptoms of a disease can be
so subtle that they go undetected such as those of a low grade or chronic
condition. Often by the time the disease process has reached the acute stage,
and the symptoms are strongly evident, the animal is in serious condition. At
that point the trauma of treatment can be as fatal as no treatment at all.
Prophylaxis and the early detection of disease can be aided by an observant
keeper and the cooperation of all persons involved with the health care of the
zoo’s animals.
Keepers can make a difference in parasite and pest control
programs, the effectiveness of quarantine procedures and the transmission of
zoonotic diseases.
Parasite and pest control should
be a continuing, on-going program in which the problems are identified and
eliminated. Through management practices and the use of regular fecal
examinations parasites can be kept at minimum levels or eradicated. Pest
control methods vary according to the species in question. A zoo should have a
pest control program which includes the knowledgeable use of pesticides,
vermifuges, traps and deterrents such as electrified fences. Keepers must be
involved in any pest control concerning animal areas.
Fecal examination should take
place on a regular basis to prevent build-up of parasites in the host animal.
When parasites are detected, treatment must be carried out according to the
specific instructions of the veterinarian with repeat dosages administered on
schedule to complete the worming process. The keeper’s
role will vary according to the policy
of the zoo he/she is employed at. Observing the condition
of stools and being alert for evidence of worms should be an automatic part of
a keeper’s work. A keeper’s physical role in parasite control is generally to
collect the fecal sample and see that
it’s promptly delivered to the person(s) responsible for examining the
sample. Or, it might include assisting the veterinarian in giving the
medication. Treatment for endo-parasites is usually by injection, or given
orally, and the keeper should be involved in helping with administering the
medication. When ecto-parasites are the problem, the keeper’s involvement will
probably include applying a powder or spray and removing the insects.
Through proper food storage and
sanitation practices, many pests can be avoided or kept at minimum levels. When
pests, (rats, mice, roaches) become a problem, they must be eradicated with
intensive and sustained efforts, but with utmost caution for the safety of the
animals, zoo visitors and zoo personnel. Insecticides and pesticides must be
used according to instructions and care must be taken that there are not
secondary victims. Containers used for insecticides or pesticides should not be
used for food or water containers later on. The preparation (mixing or filling
containers) of pesticides should not be done on a food preparation surface (or
area). Unused sprays and/or poisons must be disposed of properly. If they are
to be stored, they must be properly labeled as poisons and stored in a safe,
non-food, non- animal area. Traps for rodents should be used carefully and placed
so they could not be accidentally tripped by unintended victims.
When quarantine procedures are in
effect due to the arrival of a new animal, or in the case of a sick animal, to
prevent further spread of disease, a keeper should know exactly what procedures
are to be carried out. Instructions
should be in writing to
prevent the possibility of information
being misunderstood or passed
on incorrectly. When new animals are in quarantine, keepers should be on the
lookout for signs of fleas, ticks, mites and worms. It is also the time during
which a new animal adjusts to different food and water. Quarantine time can
give the newly arrived animal time to rebuild its
strength and offset effects of the stress of having been shipped, before
being introduced to an exhibit or other animals. A word of caution….do not add
to the stress of an animal in quarantine! Be aware of what’s affecting the
animal and work with the animal; don’t impose changes that add to its stress
level. It’s been said that it takes humans 30 days to adjust to a change or new
situation…..should we not expect that
animals have the same needs? Again, work with the animal, not against it.
Training an animal in quarantine is questionable and should be given serious,
careful thought before commencing. When
quarantine is in force due to disease, a keeper
should always be aware of the possibility of transmitting
disease organisms if proper procedures are not followed.
Zoonoses – infections or diseases
that are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and man. These
include bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoic and parasitic diseases. Some of the
more commonly referred to zoonotic diseases are tuberculosis, rabies,
salmonella and tetanus. Herpes infection, pox, polio, brucellosis, leptospirosis and ringworm are a few of the other “hidden hazards”. A case of strongyloidiasis
in a keeper was reported. As a minimum precaution against acquiring parasites
or other diseases, keepers should always wash their hands thoroughly after
working with animals and before eating
or drinking. It should also be noted that cigarettes can serve as a vector in
disease transmission. Keepers should also take care not to transmit disease to
the animals in his/her keep, especially in the case of primates, which are
susceptible to respiratory and influenza-like
sickness.
Injuries
Injuries and illness can result from several causes other than living organisms. Accidents, natural disasters,
mismanagement, problems with zoo visitors, vandals, toxic elements, sudden stress,
escapes and problems during capture and restraint are other possibilities.
Preparedness and prevention can eliminate
many problems or minimize the trauma suffered. “The name of the game in good animal husbandry is prevention, and it is a
game keepers can play as well as anyone.” (Stoskopf 1976). In the event of
fire, or natural disaster such as a severe storm, tornado or flood, knowing the
right procedures, location of equipment and acting promptly can reduce
injuries. Anticipating problems and being aware of developing problems, such as
signs of increasing stress, and removing the cause of the problem, may keep a
hyper-tense animal from running into a fence or from trying to jump it, for
example. If an unusual, hazardous situation has occurred, it can be expected to
happen again. – perhaps not for some time, but not taking precautions to
safe-guard against recurrence of a “freak” accident could result in the death
of an
animal. Examples of conditions
that could be fatal are: an animal getting hung up on bars, a fence or caught
while trying to squeeze through an opening; fighting between competitive males
or between aggressive animals; inquisitive tongues, paws or legs. Tails
sticking through openings into other units can be bitten or torn off, sometimes
resulting in the death of the victim. Protective barriers must be carefully
constructed to protect animals from other animals as well as from the public.
Negligence, forgetfulness, thoughtlessness, cruelty, lack of
understanding of an animal’s behavior, over- confidence on the part of a keeper
and not following procedures are the causes of most accidents (Henry
Doorly Zoo Keeper’s Manual). Other
management problems to consider are: improper perches for birds, resulting in
foot problems; seasonal considerations (flies/summer, extra
bedding/winter); whitening glass on the
front of exhibits so new birds can see it; carefully observing animals when
moats or pools are only half full; not allowing untrained or incompetent
personnel to work directly with the animals. Antler or horn removal, primarily
on male animals, must be done before an incident, not after trouble has
occurred and resulted in injury or death. Shipping animals in proper containers
at the best time of the year (spring and
fall preferred), and considering the climate at the destination can help
prevent health problems. Keepers for the most part are not responsible for the
ultimate decisions in many of the above mentioned situations but, in a
diplomatic way, should point out potential problems. It is a matter of
communication.
Children’s zoos where contact
animals are present have reported teasing, maiming, overfeeding, fatigue and
poisoning as problems in zoo animal health. (Schneider 1976). Keepers in these
areas must be prepared to spend time monitoring, or overseeing volunteers, to
prevent these problems. It may be necessary to let other work wait while
monitoring an area on especially busy days. Monitors must be on guard against
the stealing of eggs or small animals, too. These things seem unlikely, but
they do occur!
Toxic
materials can be chemical, plant, animal or
microbiological. The approach to toxicological problems is: diagnosis, removal of the source of
the toxic material, specific treatment based on diagnosis and non-specific and
supportive treatment. An immediate preventive measure that comes to mind is the
use of non toxic paint (non- lead or titanium base) on all cages. This is
especially relevant in monkey, rodent and baby animal areas. There is also the
possibility that there are poisonous plants in and around your zoo such as
hoofed stock pens or primate moats. The species of plants to look for will depend
on the geographical location of the zoo. Some harmful plants are purple
nightshade, blue-green algae, hemlock,
white snakeroot, loco weed, bracken fern, yew, etc. The time of year, cycle of
growth and environmental conditions will affect the toxicity in the plant.
Every zoo should have a list of toxic
plants that are located in and around the zoo, as well as an approved
browse list. The bite of toxic animals (poisonous snakes) or ingesting
non-edible animals (toads) can also occur.
Capture and Restraint
Action to be taken when an animal
must be caught depends greatly on the nature of the animal. If an escaped
animal is timid and likely to stay away from people, the course of action will
differ from what a keeper should do if the animal is dangerous, inclined to be
aggressive or stand its ground if approached by an uninformed person (zoo
visitor). The time of day an escape occurs,
how
many zoo visitors are on the grounds, the degree of stress the animal is under
and its capabilities must all be given due consideration. Ideally, the animal
should be captured and returned to its enclosure with a minimum of stress to
the animal, and danger to the zoo public and staff. Most zoos have a procedure
to follow regarding animal escapes. A basic procedure would be for a keeper to
summon help, if needed, keep the animal
in sight, confine it to a yard or certain section of the zoo and clear the area
of zoo visitors.
Operant conditioning and training
animals to accept various procedures such as weighing, crating, blood drawing
and positioning or presenting their bodies for close examination has been a
tremendous advancement in zoo animal husbandry. Where feasible, these methods
should be incorporated into the routine management of zoo animals. However,
there will always be situations where zoo animals will
need to be captured and restrained, with or without drugs. It is
imperative that experienced keepers mentor and train new keepers in the proper
techniques of capture and restraint according to the species.
The capture and restraint of
animals to examine, treat or crate is not without its problems. It’s an area
where the inexperienced can add to the problems of all concerned. If asked to
help with capturing and crating or moving animals, a keeper should know what it
is that needs to be done and how best to do it! Keepers should not experiment
with restraint techniques. Methods have been learned for the best way to handle
most animals and unless the situation is an emergency, and any help is better
than no help, the inexperienced keeper would be
wise to carefully observe the procedure and
help in minor ways. Personnel
involved in animal capture and restraint must “be sensitive to the consequences
of every action taken during a procedure.” (Fowler 1975-76).
Generally, the smoothest, least
stressful captures have been carefully planned, proper equipment was ready and
in good repair, all personnel were aware of their roles and the procedure was
carried out promptly and efficiently in a way that best suited the individual
animal. There seems to be an unwritten rule that – your first attempt is your
best attempt –; if you fail to successfully capture the animal on the first
attempt, dynamics change and stress increases proportionately for the animal
and staff.
The Safety Manual for Zoo Keepers (Animal Restraint) by Peter Karsten gives several basic safety rules to follow.
-
Know and treat animals according to their potential danger.
-
Keeper/animal relationships; an
animal that can be safely approached by one person may react differently to
others.
-
Be wary of the tameness of donated pets.
-
Know the correct procedure to enter a cage with unsafe animals;
make a positive count.
Count
what you see, not what you don’t see.
-
Operation of animal quarters door
and gates should be controlled by one person and must not be opened or closed
unless the person in charge of the operation gives an order to do so.
-
Anyone operating doors is responsible for the consequences.
-
Make every effort to avoid force.
Think of ways to move animals smoothly; use trap boxes, shift cages, bait
situations, etc.
A good rule to remember is “A
safer method for the keeper also means less stress to the animal.” (Karsten
1974).
Also
worth remembering are:
- Avoid
prolonged stress to the animal being captured as well as to the animals nearby.
-
Keep capture equipment out of sight, if possible, until time to
use it.
-
Avoid capturing two animals in the
same net or trap. In their stressed condition they can easily injure one
another.
-
Once an animal is captured, be
sure it’s secure and doesn’t slip the net and have to be re- captured.
-
It is best to capture animals at a time of day when there are no,
or few, zoo visitors.
- One
should never proceed to capture an animal if they feel unsafe, but should get help.
Although it has been stressed that
keepers should watch and learn how to properly capture animals, it is also
necessary that they TRY IT. Karsten points out the drawbacks of not trying and
of allowing the “gifted” handler to do all of the capturing. “The entire staff
may come to rely on the ‘gifted’ handler to restrain all difficult species and
to make little effort to learn such skills for their own use.”
Diagnosis and Treatment
Once a keeper is aware of a health problem it must be determined
if the problem:
- is
a critical situation and requires immediate attention.
- should
be discussed with supervisors immediately.
- needs
attention later.
A keeper, by knowing his/her
animals well, should be able to evaluate the seriousness of the problem, know
who to notify and proceed accordingly. The keeper must communicate the facts,
not elaborations. “Diagnosis and evaluations may be necessary strictly on a
keeper’s observations.” (Nall 1972-73). It
can also be helpful for the keeper to be in attendance to answer any
questions that may arise during the evaluation or examination of an animal.
Species, age and sex of the animal, the number of animals that are sick, the
onset (sudden or slow) of the illness, management and nutritional practices,
the amount of activity, and frequency of observations can all be helpful
information for diagnosis.
After diagnosis, treatment is
given by the veterinarian or as prescribed. “Medical treatment should never
be undertaken without veterinary approval. No matter how well we know our
animals, we are not familiar enough with the medical techniques and medications
and may do more harm than good in spite of our intentions.” (Lincoln Park Zoo
Keepers’ Handbook). In the event a keeper is instructed by the zoo veterinarian to medicate an animal,
he/she must know:
-
the dosage and how often to medicate.
- the
route for administering medication.
(per
os – oral, ID – intradermal, subQ – subcutaneous, IM – intramuscular, etc.).
- medication
must be given “on time”.
Additionally, the keeper should
observe the amount of medication ingested if given with food, and watch for the effects
of the medication as well as unexpected
side-effects. The dosage, time
administered and the initials of the keeper should be recorded on
some sort of record, such as a “veterinary treatment” card. Zoos with an Animal
Health Department usually have an in-house form for
use in tracking medication and treatments. Other keepers working
in the area, supervisors and the veterinarian should be kept informed of the
animal’s condition and progress.
Non-treatment of an animal can be
upsetting to zoo personnel but may be the best route to take for the animal’s
sake. The veterinarian is trained in disease control, sanitation and in the
treatment of sickness or injuries, the total medical care of the animal, and
should be in the best position to make the decision of when and how to treat
the animal. Experienced keepers who know their animals well can be an important
benefit in the diagnosis and, especially, the treatment. When administering
oral medication, it is often necessary to use a food item. Keepers should be
consulted to help determine the best way to accomplish this task which will
vary by species and between individuals. Teamwork in diagnosing and treating
animals will facilitate helping an animal in
need.
A difficult decision is when to
euthanize an animal rather than treat it and cause it needless pain and
suffering. This applies to all concerned: to staff members who might have
difficulty letting go and the veterinarian who might want to go to excessive
measure to treat the animal. What’s best for the animal must be kept in mind.
Necropsy
“Routine necropsies of all animals which die provide basic
information as well as answers to specific problems.” (Farnsworth 1974).
Valuable information can be gained from necropsy which can aid in
preventive medicine. It is the “last chance to gather information on the zoo’s
most valuable asset; the animals” (Stoskopf 1975).
Again, it is important for the
keeper to provide the veterinarian with as much history as possible. Upon
discovering a dead animal, a keeper should note the position of the carcass (is
it on its side, head turned, part of body caught, near fence, middle of
yard??). Any circumstance that might have some bearing on the death and the
suspected cause of death should be reported. Supervisors should be advised
immediately and the carcass cooled down as soon as possible. Freezing can
destroy tissue needed for microscopic study and kills bacteria; the
veterinarian should be asked if the carcass should be kept cool or frozen,
according to Stoskopf (1975).
Some zoos have a necropsy form and a set protocol regarding
bringing carcasses for necropsy. The date, time of death (if known), weight,
sex, house ID and general comments are all important to record.
The next matter of immediate
importance is to determine the possibility of another animal suffering the same
fate in the event death was caused by mechanical, exhibit design or social
problems. Action must be taken to prevent further occurrence.
Summary
The
effectiveness of a keeper’s role in a zoo’s animal health program is dependent
upon many factors.
Attitude – the
keeper’s, zoo management’s and the veterinarian’s.
Awareness – of the
procedures and policies of the zoo’s animal health program and, especially, the needs of the
individual animal.
Prevention - of problems
due to being uninformed, improper techniques and practices, poor nutrition, of
improper use of tools, equipment and lack of upkeep of exhibits and other
facilities.
Observation - of the animals and anything that either
directly or indirectly affects them. Communications
– between all persons concerned with zoo animal health.
Cooperation - accepting the roles of others, and recording
valuable information for their use
and future reference.
The administration (Director et
al), the Veterinarian and the Keeper share a common goal – the health of the
zoo’s animals. All concerned should work toward “…an understanding and
communication on the evaluation of the health and welfare of each animal in the
Zoo. Let us allow each of these three groups of trained personnel to make his
contribution to the preservation of our Zoo animals. Dedication and motivation
are the rewards of participation.” (Nall 1972-73).
Bibliography
Anon. 1968. Zoo Keeper Training. Suggested Guide for Instructors. American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums.
Anon.
(undated) Zoo Keeper Manual. Henry Doorly Zoo
Bielizki, Joe, DVM. 1977 “Of
Veterinarians and Keepers (Zoonoses and the Animal Keeper”, Animal Keepers’
Forum. IV (1):5.
Beveridge, W.I.B.. 1957. The
Art of Scientific Investigation. Norton Company, New York. Farnsworth,
Ralph, J., DVM. 1974. Personal communication.
Fowler, Murray E., DVM 1975-76.
“Causes of Death During Restraint Procedures.” AAZPA Regional Conference
Proceedings. pp263-269.
Hediger,
H. 1964. Wild Animals in Captivity. Dover Publications, New York.
…… 1968 The Psychology and
Behaviour of Animals in Zoos and Circuses. Dover Publications. New York
……
1969. Man and Animal in the Zoo. Dover Publications. New York.
Karsten, Peter. 1974. Safety
Manual for Zookeepers (Animal Restraint), Calgary Zoo, Alberta, Canada
Merriam-Webster. 2005. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh
Edition. Springfield MA.
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“Communications in a Zoo”, American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Conference
Proceedings, AAZV. pp 319-321.
Peel, Robert. 1975. “Keeper
Involvement in Zoo Records”, The Keeper. American Association of Zoo
Keepers. pp 7-8
Porter, Stu, DVM. 1975. “Of Veterinarians
and Zoo Keepers (Cooperation and Observation)”, Animal Keepers’ Forum.
II(7):3.
Sammarco, Pat (et al) 1977. Lincoln
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Schneider, Gail. 1975-76.
Children’s Zoo Survey Summary with Annotations. American Association of
Zoological Parks and Aquariums.
Stoskopf, Mike DVM. 1975 “Of Veterinarians and Keepers”, Animal
Keepers’ Forum. II(2):3.
….. 1975. “Of Veterinarians and Keepers” (The Necropsy), Animal Keepers’ Forum. II(11):7.
….. 1976. “Of Veterinarians and
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(undated) Public Feeding of Zoo Animals Survey Results.
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